Thus, the present monograph capitalizes on the strengths in capturing parent and child perceptions of parent practices and measuring parenting across domains to understand caregiving across cultures across ontogeny. Finally and significantly, children’s and adolescents’ perceptions of, for example, their parents’ warmth more strongly relate to their well-being than specific behaviors parents use to demonstrate warmth (Rohner & Lans- ford, 2017). A strength of these studies is that they ask about these constructs in the same way across all 12 cultural groups, and doing so avoids the problem of having to compare and contrast different behavioral forms of the same parenting constructs. In consequence, it would be much more challenging to compare and contrast different specific behaviors indexing each of these four parenting domains that is, a given parenting construct (such as warmth) might manifest itself differently (and so noncomparably) in different cultures. It is likely that any given form of parenting can express itself and function in different ways in different cultures (Bornstein, 1995). Together these studies of each of the four parenting domains examined in this monograph cross 9 countries and 12 cultural groups. Cognitions contribute to how much time, effort, and energy to expend in parenting, and they form a framework in which parents perceive and interpret their children’s behaviors. Furthermore, cognitions about parenting serve many functions: They affect parents’ sense of self, help to organize parenting, and mediate the effectiveness of parenting practices. Parenting cognitions prominently include goals, attitudes, expectations, perceptions, attributions, and actual knowledge of child rearing and child development (Bornstein, 2015 Holden & Smith, 2019). Mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of their parenting are valuable to study because parents’ and others’ beliefs about parenting practices have long held a popular place in the study of parenting and child development, and they span a wide array of mentations about parenthood, about one’s own parenting, about childhood, and about one’s own child(ren). Notably, measures about each of these domains tap mothers’, fathers’, and their children’s reported perceptions rather than observed behaviors. These domains constitute cornerstones of parents’ approaches to caregiving in the childhood and adolescence periods. The country-level studies in this volume all examine separate developmental trajectories of parenting warmth, behavioral control, rules/limit-setting, and knowledge solicitation. Here we briefly recapitulate the four domains of parenting and then set the findings of these efforts in a deeper discussion of specificity and universality, country and culture, determinants, strengths, and limitations, and future directions and implications. Reports in the foregoing chapters draw all these data together to unveil how this diversity advances understanding of culture-general and culture-specific aspects of parenting in the formative period of children’s transition into adolescence. Additionally, the Parenting Across Cultures project permitted the investigators to evaluate potential influences on those parenting trajectories of common sociodemographic correlates of parenting, including parents’ ages at the time of childbirth, parents’ education, and child gender. This longitudinal design allowed the investigators to trace trajectories of each of the four parenting domains from childhood into adolescence. Parents and children were recruited when the children were approximately 8 years of age, and they were interviewed annually over the succeeding approximately 12 years. The nine nations represented are China, Colombia, Italy (with two cultural groups), Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States (with three cultural groups). The four parenting domains are warmth, behavioral control, rules/limit-setting, and knowledge solicitation. The studies reported here spring from the Parenting Across Cultures project, a longitudinal investigation of mothers, fathers, and children. This volume on Parenting Across Cultures from Childhood to Adolescence: Development in Nine Countries in the Studies in Parenting series compares and contrasts how four central domains of parenting change or remain the same from childhood to adolescence in 12 diverse cultural contexts in nine countries around the world.
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